Operation LAC was undertaken in 1957 and 1958 by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps.[2] Principally, the operation involved spraying large areas with zinc cadmium sulfide.[1] The U.S. Air Force loaned the Army a C-119, "Flying Boxcar", and it was used to disperse zinc cadmium sulfide by the ton in the atmosphere over the United States.[3] The first test occurred on December 2, 1957 along a path from South Dakota to International Falls, Minnesota.[4]
The tests were designed to determine the dispersion and geographic range of biological or chemical agents.[3] Stations on the ground tracked the fluorescent zinc cadmium sulfide particles.[3] During the first test and subsequently, much of the material dispersed ended up being carried by winds into Canada.[4] However, as was the case in the first test, particles were detected up to 1,200 miles away from their drop point.[3][4] A typical flight line covering 400 miles would release 5,000 pounds of zinc cadmium sulfide and in fiscal year 1958 around 100 hours were spent in flight for LAC.[4] That flight time included four runs of various lengths, one of which was 1,400 miles.[4]
Specific tests
The December 2, 1957 test was incomplete due to a mass of cold air coming down from Canada.[4] It carried the particles from their drop point and then took a turn northeast, taking most of the particles into Canada with it. Military operators considered the test a partial success because some of the particles were detected 1,200 miles away, at a station in New York state.[4] A February 1958 test at Dugway Proving Ground ended similarly. Another Canadian air mass swept through and carried the particles into the Gulf of Mexico.[4] Two other tests, one along a path from Toledo, Ohio to Abilene, Texas, and another from Detroit, to Springfield, Illinois, to Goodland, Kansas, showed that agents dispersed through this aerial method could achieve widespread coverage when particles were detected on both sides of the flight paths.[4]
Scope
According to Leonard A. Cole, an Army Chemical Corps document titled "Summary of Major Events and Problems" (1958) described the scope of Operation LAC. Cole stated that the document outlined that the tests were the largest ever undertaken by the Chemical Corps and that the test area stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, and from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.[4] Other sources describe the scope of LAC varyingly, examples include, "Midwestern United States",[3] and "the states east of the Rockies".[1] Specific locations are mentioned as well. Some of those include: a path from South Dakota to Minneapolis, Minnesota,[2]Dugway Proving Ground, Corpus Christi, Texas, north-central Texas, and the San Francisco Bay area.[1]
Cold War Chemical Tests Over American Cities
WASHINGTON -- A series of secret tests conducted by the U.S. Army in the 1950s and 1960s did not expose residents of the United States and Canada to chemical levels considered harmful, according to a new report* from a committee of the National Research Council.
The U.S. Army released the chemical compound zinc cadmium sulfide from airplanes, rooftops, and moving vehicles in 33 urban and rural areas as part of a Cold War program to test the way biological weapons might disperse under different conditions. Zinc cadmium sulfide, a fine fluorescent powder, was chosen because its particles are similar in size to germs used in biological warfare, and because its fluorescence under ultraviolet light made it easy to trace. It is not a biological weapon, nor was it thought at the time to be toxic. But residents in affected cities -- including Minneapolis; St. Louis; Winnipeg, Manitoba; Corpus Christi, Texas; and Fort Wayne, Ind. -- became concerned about possible health effects after details of the tests became widely known in the 1990s.
[I lived in Ft. Wayne Ind. at the time and observed on my street military vehicles spraying with men in Hazmat suits. I suffer COPD (never smoked) and have Barret's disease, et. al. ~Bear]
"After an exhaustive, independent review requested by Congress we have found no evidence that exposure to zinc cadmium sulfide at these levels could cause people to become sick," said committee chair Rogene Henderson, senior scientist, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, N.M. "Even when we assume the worst about how this chemical might behave in the lungs, we conclude that people would be at a higher risk simply from living in a typical urban, industrialized area for several days or, in some cases, for months."
Information on how zinc cadmium sulfide affects human health is sparse, but data from animal tests indicate that the compound, when taken orally, has no short-term toxic effects; nor was it found to be a skin or eye irritant. Because limited laboratory research on the toxicity of zinc cadmium sulfide has been performed on animals, and no data exist on humans, the committee based its conclusions about the ability of the compound to cause cancer on what it called a "worst-case" assumption: that the compound is every bit as toxic as its most toxic component -- cadmium. High doses of cadmium over long periods of time could cause bone and kidney problems and lung cancer, but the Army's tests involved small doses of a less toxic compound over short periods of time, the report says. The committee estimated that the excess maximum lifetime cancer risk for the most heavily exposed residents of St. Louis is 1.5 in 1 million; in Minneapolis it is one in 2.5 million; one in 1 million in Winnipeg; seven in 100 million in Fort Wayne; and one in 100 million in Corpus Christi.
For non-cancer toxicity, the committee based its conclusions on what is known about cadmium sulfide, a compound that has some properties similar to zinc cadmium sulfide. The committee estimated that an average-size male could inhale as much as 500 micrograms of cadmium sulfide over a few days without causing toxicity in the lungs. Even in populated areas where exposures from the Army's tests were the highest, residents were exposed to far more cadmium in their normal daily contact with soil, water, food, and air (between 12 and 84 micrograms) than they were potentially exposed to from the Army's tests. The maximum estimated cadmium dose from all tests combined was 24.4 micrograms in St. Louis; 14.5 in Winnipeg; 6.8 in Minneapolis; 1.1 in Fort Wayne, and 0.1 in Corpus Christi. In Biltmore Beach, Fla. -- a remote unpopulated island location at the time of the tests -- the total may have been as high as 390 micrograms, but very few people if any were believed to have been exposed there.
The conclusions are based on data from the published scientific literature, information supplied by the Army and its contractors, and testimony from citizens in public meetings held by the committee in Minneapolis, Fort Wayne, and Corpus Christi. Some of the exposure data from the Army's tests have been lost or misplaced over the years since the tests were conducted, but the committee "feels confident in the large amount of data that it reviewed and does not believe it likely that the additional missing data would alter its conclusions."
Beyond looking at information on the toxicity, exposure data, and physical and chemical properties of the substance used in the experiments, the committee also evaluated whether it is feasible to perform a follow-up study to track the health status of those exposed. Three barriers would make such a study unfeasible, according to the report. Since the Army tests are now 30 to 40 years old, it would be extremely difficult to identify the people who were affected and to determine their past exposures to zinc cadmium sulfide. Even if they were found, there is a lack of data on their health before, during, and after exposure. And it would take a huge sample of exposed residents to detect even a small increase in health problems.
The Army should conduct studies to determine whether inhaled zinc cadmium sulfide breaks down into toxic cadmium compounds, which can be absorbed into the blood to produce toxicity in the lungs and other organs. Such research would strengthen the database needed for assessing the risk from the substance, the report says, and would eliminate the reliance on estimates of exposure to cadmium or cadmium compounds.
In some cities the Army dispersed microorganisms -- either alone or in combination with zinc cadmium sulfide. Recent research indicates that the microbes used do not produce disease in healthy people, but could produce disease in people with weak immune systems. The committee was not asked to assess the possible health effects of these tests, nor was it asked to address the ethical and social issues raised by the testing program as a whole.
A committee roster follows. This study was funded by the U.S. Department of the Army. The National Research Council is the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering. It is a private, non-profit organization that provides independent advice on science and technology under a congressional charter granted to the National Academy of Sciences.
Other NAP books related by word and phrase frequencies
The following titles are likely to be of interest to you. The top keyword and keyphrase weights from this report have been compared with the equivalent lists of words and phrases for all other available NAP publications.
- Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume 2 (2007) (ISBN 0309103797) Committee on Spacecraft Exposure Guidelines, Committee on Toxicology, National Research Council
- Toxicity Testing for Assessment of Environmental Agents: Interim Report (2006) (ISBN 0309100925) Committee on Toxicity Testing and Assessment of Environmental Agents, National Research Council
- Drinking Water Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks (2006) (ISBN 0309103061) Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks, National Research Council
- Toxicogenomic Technologies and Risk Assessment of Environmental Carcinogens: A Workshop Summary (2005) (ISBN 0309097002) Committee on How Toxicogenomics Could Inform Critical Issues in Carcinogenic Risk Assessment of Environmental Chemicals, Committee on Emerging Issues and Data on Environmental Contaminants, National Research Council
- Scientific Review of the Proposed Risk Assessment Bulletin from the Office of Management and Budget (2007) (ISBN 0309104777) Committee to Review the OMB Risk Assessment Bulletin, National Research Council
- Superfund and Mining Megasites: Lessons from the Coeur d'Alene River Basin (2005) (ISBN 0309097142) Committee on Superfund Site Assessment and Remediation in the Coeur d' Alene River Basin, National Research Council
- Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals (2006) (ISBN 0309102723) Committee on Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Toxicants, National Research Council
- Indicators for Waterborne Pathogens (2004) (ISBN 0309091225) Committee on Indicators for Waterborne Pathogens, National Research Council
- Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism (2004) (ISBN 030909237X) Immunization Safety Review Committee
- Toxicologic Assessment of the Army's Zinc Cadmium Sulfide Dispersion Tests (1997) (ISBN 0309057833) Subcommittee on Zinc Cadmium Sulfide, National Research Council
- Drinking Water and Health, Volume 1 (1977) (ISBN 0309026199) Safe Drinking Water Committee, National Research Council
- Gulf War and Health: Volume 2. Insecticides and Solvents (2003) (ISBN 030908458X) Committee on Gulf War and Health: Literature Review of Pesticides and Solvents
- Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals: Volume 3 (2003) (ISBN 0309088836) Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, National Research Council
- Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2002 (2003) (ISBN 0309086167) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides (Fourth Biennial Update)
- Waste Incineration and Public Health (2000) (ISBN 030906371X) Committee on Health Effects of Waste Incineration, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Gulf War and Health: Volume 1. Depleted Uranium, Pyridostigmine Bromide, Sarin, and Vaccines (2000) (ISBN 030907178X) Carolyn E. Fulco, Catharyn T. Liverman, Harold C. Sox, Editors, Committee on Health Effects Associated with Exposures During the Gulf War, Division of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
- Veterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam (1994) (ISBN 0309048877) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides, Institute of Medicine
- Arsenic in Drinking Water (1999) (ISBN 0309063337) Subcommittee on Arsenic in Drinking Water, National Research Council
- Review of the U.S. Army's Health Risk Assessments for Oral Exposure to Six Chemical-Warfare Agents (1999) (ISBN 0309065984) Subcommittee on Chronic Reference Doses for Selected Chemical Warfare Agents, National Research Council
- Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002) (ISBN 0309084865) Committee on Toxicants and Pathogens in Biosolids Applied to Land, National Research Council
- Drinking Water and Health, Volume 6 (1986) (ISBN 0309036879) Safe Drinking Water Committee, Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health Hazards, National Research Council
- Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Chemicals (1995) (ISBN 0309052297) Committee on Prudent Practices for Handling, Storage, and Disposal of Chemicals in Laboratories, National Research Council
- Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 1: Public Health and Hazardous Wastes (1991) (ISBN 0309044960) Committee on Environmental Epidemiology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Standing Operating Procedures for Developing Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Chemicals (2001) (ISBN 030907553X) Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Evaluating Chemical and Other Agent Exposures for Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity (2001) (ISBN 0309073162) Subcommittee on Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Drinking Water and Health, Volume 9 Selected Issues in Risk Assessment (1989) (ISBN 0309038979) Safe Drinking Water Committee, National Research Council
- Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001) (ISBN 0309076293) Subcommittee to Update the 1999 Arsenic in Drinking Water Report, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2000 (2001) (ISBN 0309075521) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides (Third Biennial Update), Division of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
- Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet: A Comparison of Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances (1996) (ISBN 0309053919) Committee on Comparative Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Carcinogens, National Research Council
- Risk-Based Waste Classification in California (1999) (ISBN 0309065445) Committee on Risk-Based Criteria for Non-RCRA Hazardous Waste, National Research Council
- Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 2: Use of the Gray Literature and Other Data in Environmental Epidemiology (1997) (ISBN 030905737X) Committee on Environmental Epidemiology, National Research Council
- Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000) (ISBN 0309070864) Committee on Developmental Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
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- Drinking Water and Health, Volume 7 Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products (1987) (ISBN 0309037417) Safe Drinking Water Committee, National Research Council
- Drinking Water and Health, Volume 3 (1980) (ISBN 0309029325) Safe Drinking Water Committee
Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health Hazards
National Research Council
- Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1996 (1996) (ISBN 0309054877) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides, Institute of Medicine
- Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Assessing Health Risks to Deployed U.S. Forces -- Workshop Proceedings (2000) (ISBN 0309068762) Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991) (ISBN 0309046319) Committee on Tropospheric Ozone, National Research Council
- Air Pollution, the Automobile, and Public Health (1988) (ISBN 0309037263) Ann Y. Watson, Sc.D., Richard R. Bates, M.D., and Donald Kennedy, Ph.D., Editors, Sponsored by The Health Effects Institute
- Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (2000) (ISBN 0309071348) Subcommittee on Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Drinking Water and Health, Volume 2 (1980) (ISBN 0309029317) Safe Drinking Water Committee, Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health Hazards, Assembly of Life Sciences
- Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants, Volume 2 (1999) (ISBN 0309063299) Subcommittee on Military Smokes and Obscurants, National Research Council
- Setting Priorities for Drinking Water Contaminants (1999) (ISBN 0309062934) Committee on Drinking Water Contaminants, National Research Council
- Biologic Markers in Pulmonary Toxicology (1989) (ISBN 0309039908) Committee on Biologic Markers, National Research Council
- Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993) (ISBN 0309048753) Committee on Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children, National Research Council
- Complex Mixtures: Methods for In Vivo Toxicity Testing (1988) (ISBN 0309037786) Committee on Methods for the In Vivo Toxicity Testing of Complex Mixtures, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council
- Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1998 (1999) (ISBN 0309063264) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides (Second Biennial Update), Institute of Medicine
- Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter: I. Immediate Priorities and a Long-Range Research Portfolio (1998) (ISBN 030906094X) Committee on Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter, National Research Council
- Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 2 (1996) (ISBN 0309054788) Subcommittee on Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentration, National Research Council
- Assessment of Exposure-Response Functions for Rocket-Emission Toxicants (1998) (ISBN 030906144X) Subcommittee on Rocket-Emission Toxicants, National Research Council
I'm one of the winnipeg victims. Need a way to contact you. I don't have twitter. Can you start a FB group please on this issue ? I want to see how many others have copd as i do.
ReplyDeleteI am working on a long personal essay about Operation L.A.C. I would be interested in corresponding with anyone who remembers or who might have been affected by the dispersals.
ReplyDeleteMany people in Ft Wayne affected. I just found out late kidney failure and also have bone pain and shortness of breath. My dad just found out has cancer near lung and on shoulder and doing body scan. Many stories of whole families losing all kids. Why haven't lawsuits been filed? Why haven't we been warned?
ReplyDelete